JEL Classification System / EconLit Subject Descriptors URL: https://www.aeaweb.org/econlit/jelCodes.php?view=econlit&print All changes since 2018-11-01 are noted below. ‡ = New Classification † = Updated Classification A00 General Economics and Teaching A10 General Economics: General A11 Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists A12 Relation of Economics to Other Disciplines A13 Relation of Economics to Social Values A14 Sociology of Economics A19 General Economics: Other A20 Economic Education and Teaching of Economics: General A21 Economic Education and Teaching of Economics: Pre-college A22 Economic Education and Teaching of Economics: Undergraduate A23 Economic Education and Teaching of Economics: Graduate A29 Economic Education and Teaching of Economics: Other A30 Collective Works: General A31 Collected Writings of Individuals A32 Collective Volumes A33 Handbooks A39 Collective Works: Other B00 History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches B10 History of Economic Thought through 1925: General B11 History of Economic Thought: Preclassical (Ancient, Medieval, Mercantilist, Physiocratic) B12 History of Economic Thought: Classical (includes Adam Smith) B13 History of Economic Thought: Neoclassical through 1925 (Austrian, Marshallian, Walrasian, Wicksellian) B14 History of Economic Thought through 1925: Socialist; Marxist B15 History of Economic Thought through 1925: Historical; Institutional; Evolutionary B16 History of Economic Thought through 1925: Quantitative and Mathematical B17 History of Economic Thought through 1925: International Trade and Finance B19 History of Economic Thought through 1925: Other B20 History of Economic Thought since 1925: General B21 History of Economic Thought: Microeconomics B22 History of Economic Thought: Macroeconomics B23 History of Economic Thought: Quantitative and Mathematical B24 History of Economic Thought since 1925: Socialist; Marxist; Sraffian B25 History of Economic Thought since 1925: Historical; Institutional; Evolutionary; Austrian; Stockholm School B26 History of Economic Thought since 1925: Financial Economics B27 History of Economic Thought since 1925: International Trade and Finance B29 History of Economic Thought since 1925: Other B30 History of Economic Thought: Individuals: General B31 History of Economic Thought: Individuals B32 Obituaries B40 Economic Methodology: General B41 Economic Methodology B49 Economic Methodology: Other B50 Current Heterodox Approaches: General B51 Current Heterodox Approaches: Socialist; Marxian; Sraffian B52 Current Heterodox Approaches: Historical; Institutional; Evolutionary; Modern Monetary Theory† B53 Current Heterodox Approaches: Austrian B54 Feminist Economics B55 Social Economics B59 Current Heterodox Approaches: Other C00 Mathematical and Quantitative Methods: General C01 Econometrics C02 Mathematical Methods C10 Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General C11 Bayesian Analysis: General C12 Hypothesis Testing: General C13 Estimation: General C14 Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General C15 Statistical Simulation Methods: General C18 Methodological Issues: General C19 Econometric and Statistical Methods: Other C20 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: General C21 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions C22 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes C23 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models C24 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Truncated and Censored Models; Switching Regression Models; Threshold Regression Models C25 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors; Proportions; Probabilities C26 Single Equation Models: Single Variables: Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation C29 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Other C30 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables: General C31 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models C32 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models C33 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models C34 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Truncated and Censored Models; Switching Regression Models C35 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models; Discrete Regressors; Proportions C36 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation C38 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models: Classification Methods; Cluster Analysis; Principal Components; Factor Models C39 Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables: Other C40 Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics: General C41 Duration Analysis; Optimal Timing Strategies C42 Classification Discontinued 2008. See C83. C43 Index Numbers and Aggregation; Leading indicators C44 Operations Research; Statistical Decision Theory C45 Neural Networks and Related Topics C46 Specific Distributions; Specific Statistics C49 Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics: Other C50 Econometric Modeling: General C51 Model Construction and Estimation C52 Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection C53 Forecasting Models; Simulation Methods C54 Quantitative Policy Modeling C55 Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis C57 Econometrics of Games and Auctions C58 Financial Econometrics C59 Econometric Modeling: Other C60 Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling: General C61 Optimization Techniques; Programming Models; Dynamic Analysis C62 Existence and Stability Conditions of Equilibrium C63 Computational Techniques; Simulation Modeling C65 Miscellaneous Mathematical Tools C67 Input-Output Models C68 Computable General Equilibrium Models C69 Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling: Other C70 Game Theory and Bargaining Theory: General C71 Cooperative Games C72 Noncooperative Games C73 Stochastic and Dynamic Games; Evolutionary Games; Repeated Games C78 Bargaining Theory; Matching Theory C79 Game Theory and Bargaining Theory: Other C80 Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs: General C81 Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access C82 Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Macroeconomic Data; Data Access C83 Survey Methods; Sampling Methods C87 Econometric Software C88 Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs: Other Computer Software C89 Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs: Other C90 Design of Experiments: General C91 Design of Experiments: Laboratory, Individual C92 Design of Experiments: Laboratory, Group Behavior C93 Field Experiments C99 Design of Experiments: Other D00 Microeconomics: General D01 Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles D02 Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact D04 Microeconomic Policy: Formulation, Implementation, and Evaluation D10 Household Behavior: General D11 Consumer Economics: Theory D12 Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis D13 Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation D14 Household Saving; Personal Finance D15 Intertemporal Household Choice; Life Cycle Models and Saving D16 Collaborative Consumption D18 Consumer Protection D19 Household Behavior and Family Economics: Other D20 Production and Organizations: General D21 Firm Behavior: Theory D22 Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis D23 Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights D24 Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity; Capacity D25 Intertemporal Firm Choice: Investment, Capacity, and Financing D26 Crowd-Based Firms D29 Production and Organizations: Other D30 Distribution: General D31 Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions D33 Factor Income Distribution D39 Distribution: Other D40 Market Structure, Pricing, and Design: General D41 Market Structure, Pricing, and Design: Perfect Competition D42 Market Structure, Pricing, and Design: Monopoly D43 Market Structure, Pricing, and Design: Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection D44 Auctions D45 Rationing; Licensing D46 Value Theory D47 Market Design D49 Market Structure and Pricing: Other D50 General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium: General D51 Exchange and Production Economies D52 Incomplete Markets D53 General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium: Financial Markets D57 General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium: Input-Output Tables and Analysis D58 Computable and Other Applied General Equilibrium Models D59 General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium: Other D60 Welfare Economics: General D61 Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis D62 Externalities D63 Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement D64 Altruism; Philanthropy; Intergenerational Transfers D69 Welfare Economics: Other D70 Analysis of Collective Decision-Making: General D71 Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations D72 Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior D73 Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations; Corruption D74 Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions D78 Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation D79 Analysis of Collective Decision-Making: Other D80 Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty: General D81 Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty D82 Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design D83 Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief; Unawareness D84 Expectations; Speculations D85 Network Formation and Analysis: Theory D86 Economics of Contract: Theory D87 Neuroeconomics D89 Information and Uncertainty: Other D90 Micro-Based Behavioral Economics: General D91 Micro-Based Behavioral Economics: Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making E00 Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics: General E01 Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts E02 Institutions and the Macroeconomy E10 General Aggregative Models: General E11 General Aggregative Models: Marxian; Sraffian; Kaleckian E12 General Aggregative Models: Keynes; Keynesian; Post-Keynesian; Modern Monetary Theory† E13 General Aggregative Models: Neoclassical E14 Austrian; Evolutionary; Institutional E16 General Aggregative Models: Social Accounting Matrix E17 General Aggregative Models: Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications E19 General Aggregative Models: Other E20 Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy: General (includes Measurement and Data) E21 Macroeconomics: Consumption; Saving; Wealth E22 Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity E23 Macroeconomics: Production E24 Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity E25 Aggregate Factor Income Distribution E26 Informal Economy; Underground Economy E27 Macroeconomics: Consumption, Saving, Production, Employment, and Investment: Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications E29 Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy: Other E30 Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: General (includes Measurement and Data) E31 Price Level; Inflation; Deflation E32 Business Fluctuations; Cycles E37 Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications E39 Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles: Other E40 Money and Interest Rates: General E41 Demand for Money E42 Monetary Systems; Standards; Regimes; Government and the Monetary System; Payment Systems E43 Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects E44 Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy E47 Money and Interest Rates: Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications E49 Money and Interest Rates: Other E50 Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit: General E51 Money Supply; Credit; Money Multipliers E52 Monetary Policy E58 Central Banks and Their Policies E59 Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit: Other E60 Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook: General E61 Policy Objectives; Policy Designs and Consistency; Policy Coordination E62 Fiscal Policy E63 Comparative or Joint Analysis of Fiscal and Monetary Policy; Stabilization; Treasury Policy E64 Incomes Policy; Price Policy E65 Studies of Particular Policy Episodes E66 General Outlook and Conditions E69 Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook: Other E70 Macro-Based Behavioral Economics: General E71 Macro-Based Behavioral Economics: Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on the Macro Economy F00 International Economics: General F01 Global Outlook F02 International Economic Order and Integration F10 Trade: General F11 Neoclassical Models of Trade F12 Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies; Fragmentation F13 Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations F14 Empirical Studies of Trade F15 Economic Integration F16 Trade and Labor Market Interactions F17 Trade: Forecasting and Simulation F18 Trade and Environment F19 Trade: Other F20 International Factor Movements and International Business: General F21 International Investment; Long-term Capital Movements F22 International Migration F23 Multinational Firms; International Business F24 Remittances F29 International Factor Movements: Other F30 International Finance: General F31 Foreign Exchange F32 Current Account Adjustment; Short-term Capital Movements F33 International Monetary Arrangements and Institutions F34 International Lending and Debt Problems F35 Foreign Aid F36 Financial Aspects of Economic Integration F37 International Finance Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications F38 International Financial Policy: Financial Transactions Tax; Capital Controls F39 International Finance: Other F40 Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance: General F41 Open Economy Macroeconomics F42 International Policy Coordination and Transmission F43 Economic Growth of Open Economies F44 International Business Cycles F45 Macroeconomic Issues of Monetary Unions F47 Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance: Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications F49 Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance: Other F50 International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy: General F51 International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions F52 National Security; Economic Nationalism F53 International Agreements and Observance; International Organizations F54 Colonialism; Imperialism; Postcolonialism F55 International Institutional Arrangements F59 International Relations and International Political Economy: Other F60 Economic Impacts of Globalization: General F61 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Microeconomic Impacts F62 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Macroeconomic Impacts F63 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Economic Development F64 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Environment F65 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Finance F66 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Labor F68 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Policy F69 Economic Impacts of Globalization: Other G00 Financial Economics: General G01 Financial Crises G10 Asset Markets and Pricing G11 Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions G12 Equities; Fixed Income Securities G13 Contingent Pricing; Futures Pricing; option pricing G14 Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading G15 International Financial Markets G17 Financial Forecasting and Simulation G18 General Financial Markets: Government Policy and Regulation G19 General Financial Markets: Other G20 Financial Institutions and Services: General G21 Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages G22 Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies G23 Pension Funds; Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors G24 Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and Ratings Agencies G28 Financial Institutions and Services: Government Policy and Regulation G29 Financial Institutions and Services: Other G30 Corporate Finance and Governance: General G31 Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity G32 Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill G33 Bankruptcy; Liquidation G34 Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Voting; Proxy Contests; Corporate Governance G35 Payout Policy G38 Corporate Finance and Governance: Government Policy and Regulation G39 Corporate Finance and Governance: Other G40 Behavioral Finance: General G41 Behavioral Finance: Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making in Financial Markets G50 Household Finance: General G51 Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth G52 Household Finance: Insurance G53 Household Finance: Financial Literacy G59 Household Finance: Other H00 Public Economics: General H10 Structure and Scope of Government: General H11 Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government H12 Crisis Management H13 Economics of Eminent Domain; Expropriation; Nationalization H19 Structure and Scope of Government: Other H20 Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue: General H21 Taxation and Subsidies: Efficiency; Optimal Taxation H22 Taxation and Subsidies: Incidence H23 Taxation and Subsidies: Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies H24 Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes inheritance and gift taxes H25 Business Taxes and Subsidies including sales and value-added (VAT) H26 Tax Evasion and Avoidance H27 Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenues: Other Sources of Revenue H29 Taxation and Subsidies: Other H30 Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents: General H31 Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents: Household H32 Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents: Firm H39 Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents: Other H40 Publicly Provided Goods: General H41 Public Goods H42 Publicly Provided Private Goods H43 Project Evaluation; Social Discount Rate H44 Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets H49 Publicly Provided Goods: Other H50 National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General H51 National Government Expenditures and Health H52 National Government Expenditures and Education H53 National Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs H54 National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock H55 Social Security and Public Pensions H56 National Security and War H57 National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: Procurement H59 National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: Other H60 National Budget, Deficit, and Debt: General H61 National Budget; Budget Systems H62 National Deficit; Surplus H63 National Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt H68 Forecasts of Budgets, Deficits, and Debt H69 National Budget, Deficit, and Debt: Other H70 State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations: General H71 State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue H72 State and Local Budget and Expenditures H73 State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations: Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects H74 State and Local Borrowing H75 State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions H76 State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories H77 Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession H79 State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations: Other H80 Public Economics: Miscellaneous Issues: General H81 Governmental Loans; Loan Guarantees; Credits; Grants; Bailouts H82 Governmental Property H83 Public Administration; Public Sector Accounting and Audits H84 Disaster Aid H87 International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods H89 Public Economics: Miscellaneous Issues: Other I00 Health, Education, and Welfare: General I10 Health: General I11 Analysis of Health Care Markets I12 Health Behavior I13 Health Insurance, Public and Private I14 Health and Inequality I15 Health and Economic Development I18 Health: Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health I19 Health: Other I20 Education and Research Institutions: General I21 Analysis of Education I22 Educational Finance; Financial Aid I23 Higher Education; Research Institutions I24 Education and Inequality I25 Education and Economic Development I26 Returns to Education I28 Education: Government Policy I29 Education: Other I30 Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty: General I31 General Welfare; Well-Being I32 Measurement and Analysis of Poverty I38 Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty: Government Programs; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs I39 Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty: Other J00 Labor and Demographic Economics: General J01 Labor Economics: General J08 Labor Economics Policies J10 Demographic Economics: General J11 Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts J12 Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse J13 Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth J14 Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-labor Market Discrimination J15 Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination J16 Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination J17 Value of Life; Forgone Income J18 Demographic Economics: Public Policy J19 Demographic Economics: Other J20 Demand and Supply of Labor: General J21 Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure J22 Time Allocation and Labor Supply J23 Labor Demand J24 Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity J26 Retirement; Retirement Policies J28 Safety; Job Satisfaction; Related Public Policy J29 Time Allocation, Work Behavior, and Employment Determination: Other J30 Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: General J31 Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials J32 Nonwage Labor Costs and Benefits; Retirement Plans; Private Pensions J33 Compensation Packages; Payment Methods J38 Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy J39 Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Other J40 Particular Labor Markets: General J41 Labor Contracts J42 Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets J43 Agricultural Labor Markets J44 Professional Labor Markets; Occupational Licensing J45 Public Sector Labor Markets J46 Informal Labor Markets J47 Coercive Labor Markets J48 Particular Labor Markets: Public Policy J49 Particular Labor Markets: Other J50 Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining: General J51 Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects J52 Dispute Resolution: Strikes, Arbitration, and Mediation; Collective Bargaining J53 Labor-Management Relations; Industrial Jurisprudence J54 Producer Cooperatives; Labor Managed Firms; Employee Ownership J58 Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining: Public Policy J59 Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining: Other J60 Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers: General J61 Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers J62 Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility; Promotion J63 Labor Turnover; Vacancies; Layoffs J64 Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search J65 Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings J68 Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy J69 Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Other J70 Labor Discrimination: General J71 Labor Discrimination J78 Labor Discrimination: Public Policy J79 Labor Discrimination: Other J80 Labor Standards: General J81 Labor Standards: Working Conditions J82 Labor Standards: Labor Force Composition J83 Labor Standards: Workers' Rights J88 Labor Standards: Public Policy J89 Labor Standards: Other K00 Law and Economics: General K10 Basic Areas of Law: General (Constitutional Law) K11 Property Law K12 Contract Law K13 Tort Law and Product Liability; Forensic Economics K14 Criminal Law K15 Civil Law; Common Law K16 Election Law K19 Basic Areas of Law: Other K20 Regulation and Business Law: General K21 Antitrust Law K22 Business and Securities Law K23 Regulated Industries and Administrative Law K24 Cyber Law K25 Real Estate Law K29 Regulation and Business Law: Other K30 Other Substantive Areas of Law: General K31 Labor Law K32 Energy, Environmental, Health, and Safety Law K33 International Law K34 Tax Law K35 Personal Bankruptcy Law K36 Family and Personal Law K37 Immigration Law K38 Human Rights Law; Gender Law K39 Other Substantive Areas of Law: Other K40 Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior: General K41 Litigation Process K42 Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law K49 Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior: Other L00 Industrial Organization: General L10 Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance: General L11 Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms L12 Monopoly; Monopolization Strategies L13 Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets L14 Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks L15 Information and Product Quality; Standardization and Compatibility L16 Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices L17 Open Source Products and Markets L19 Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance: Other L20 Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior: General L21 Business Objectives of the Firm L22 Firm Organization and Market Structure L23 Organization of Production L24 Contracting Out; Joint Ventures; Technology Licensing L25 Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope L26 Entrepreneurship L29 Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior: Other L30 Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise: General L31 Nonprofit Institutions; NGOs; Social Entrepreneurship L32 Public Enterprises; Public-Private Enterprises L33 Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out L38 Public Policy L39 Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise: Other L40 Antitrust Issues and Policies: General L41 Monopolization; Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices L42 Vertical Restraints; Resale Price Maintenance; Quantity Discounts L43 Legal Monopolies and Regulation or Deregulation L44 Antitrust Policy and Public Enterprises, Nonprofit Institutions, and Professional Organizations L49 Antitrust Policy: Other L50 Regulation and Industrial Policy: General L51 Economics of Regulation L52 Industrial Policy; Sectoral Planning Methods L53 Enterprise Policy L59 Regulation and Industrial Policy: Other L60 Industry Studies: Manufacturing: General L61 Metals and Metal Products; Cement; Glass; Ceramics L62 Automobiles; Other Transportation Equipment; Related Parts and Equipment L63 Microelectronics; Computers; Communications Equipment L64 Other Machinery; Business Equipment; Armaments L65 Chemicals; Rubber; Drugs; Biotechnology; Plastics L66 Food; Beverages; Cosmetics; Tobacco; Wine and Spirits L67 Other Consumer Nondurables: Clothing, Textiles, Shoes, and Leather Goods; Household Goods; Sports Equipment L68 Appliances; Furniture; Other Consumer Durables L69 Industry Studies: Manufacturing: Other L70 Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction: General L71 Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels L72 Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Other Nonrenewable Resources L73 Forest Products L74 Construction L78 Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction: Government Policy L79 Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction: Other L80 Industry Studies: Services: General L81 Retail and Wholesale Trade; e-Commerce L82 Entertainment; Media L83 Sports; Gambling; Restaurants; Recreation; Tourism L84 Personal, Professional, and Business Services L85 Real Estate Services L86 Information and Internet Services; Computer Software L87 Postal and Delivery Services L88 Industry Studies: Services: Government Policy L89 Industry Studies: Services: Other L90 Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities: General L91 Transportation: General L92 Railroads and Other Surface Transportation L93 Air Transportation L94 Electric Utilities L95 Gas Utilities; Pipelines; Water Utilities L96 Telecommunications L97 Utilities: General L98 Industry Studies: Utilities and Transportation: Government Policy L99 Industry Studies: Utilities and Transportation: Other M00 Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics: General M10 Business Administration: General M11 Production Management M12 Personnel Management; Executives; Executive Compensation M13 New Firms; Startups M14 Corporate Culture; Diversity; Social Responsibility M15 IT Management M16 International Business Administration M19 Business Administration: Other M20 Business Economics: General M21 Business Economics M29 Business Economics: Other M30 Marketing and Advertising: General M31 Marketing M37 Advertising M38 Marketing and Advertising: Government Policy and Regulation M39 Marketing and Advertising: Other M40 Accounting and Auditing: General M41 Accounting M42 Auditing M48 Accounting and Auditing: Government Policy and Regulation M49 Accounting: Other M50 Personnel Economics: General M51 Personnel Economics: Firm Employment Decisions; Promotions M52 Personnel Economics: Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects M53 Personnel Economics: Training M54 Personnel Economics: Labor Management M55 Personnel Economics: Labor Contracting Devices M59 Personnel Economics: Other N00 Economic History: General N01 Development of the Discipline: Historiographical; Sources and Methods N10 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: General, International, or Comparative N11 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N12 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N13 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: Europe: Pre-1913 N14 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: Europe: 1913- N15 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: Asia including Middle East N16 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: Latin America; Caribbean N17 Economic History: Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations: Africa; Oceania N20 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: General, International, or Comparative N21 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N22 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N23 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: Europe: Pre-1913 N24 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: Europe: 1913- N25 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: Asia including Middle East N26 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: Latin America; Caribbean N27 Economic History: Financial Markets and Institutions: Africa; Oceania N30 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: General, International, or Comparative N31 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N32 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N33 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: Europe: Pre-1913 N34 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: Europe: 1913- N35 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: Asia including Middle East N36 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: Latin America; Caribbean N37 Economic History: Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy: Africa; Oceania N40 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: General, International, or Comparative N41 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N42 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N43 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: Europe: Pre-1913 N44 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: Europe: 1913- N45 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: Asia including Middle East N46 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: Latin America; Caribbean N47 Economic History: Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation: Africa; Oceania N50 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: General, International, or Comparative N51 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N52 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N53 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: Europe: Pre-1913 N54 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: Europe: 1913- N55 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: Asia including Middle East N56 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: Latin America; Caribbean N57 Economic History: Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries: Africa; Oceania N60 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: General, International, or Comparative N61 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N62 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N63 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: Europe: Pre-1913 N64 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: Europe: 1913- N65 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: Asia including Middle East N66 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: Latin America; Caribbean N67 Economic History: Manufacturing and Construction: Africa; Oceania N70 Economic History: Transport, International and Domestic Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: General, International, or Comparative N71 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N72 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N73 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: Europe: Pre-1913 N74 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: Europe: 1913- N75 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: Asia including Middle East N76 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: Latin America; Caribbean N77 Economic History: Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services: Africa; Oceania N80 Micro-Business History: General, International, or Comparative N81 Micro-Business History: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N82 Micro-Business History: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N83 Micro-Business History: Europe: Pre-1913 N84 Micro-Business History: Europe: 1913- N85 Micro-Business History: Asia including Middle East N86 Micro-Business History: Latin America; Caribbean N87 Micro-Business History: Africa; Oceania N90 Regional and Urban History: General N91 Regional and Urban History: U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913 N92 Regional and Urban History: U.S.; Canada: 1913- N93 Regional and Urban History: Europe: Pre-1913 N94 Regional and Urban History: Europe: 1913- N95 Regional and Urban History: Asia including Middle East N96 Regional and Urban History: Latin America; Caribbean N97 Regional and Urban History: Africa; Oceania O00 Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth O10 Economic Development: General O11 Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development O12 Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development O13 Economic Development: Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other Primary Products O14 Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology O15 Economic Development: Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration O16 Economic Development: Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate Finance and Governance O17 Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional Arrangements O18 Economic Development: Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure O19 International Linkages to Development; Role of International Organizations O20 Development Planning and Policy: General O21 Planning Models; Planning Policy O22 Project Analysis O23 Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development O24 Development Planning and Policy: Trade Policy; Factor Movement; Foreign Exchange Policy O25 Industrial Policy O29 Development Planning and Policy: Other O30 Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights: General O31 Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives O32 Management of Technological Innovation and R&D O33 Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion Processes O34 Intellectual Property and Intellectual Capital O35 Social Innovation O38 Technological Change: Government Policy O39 Technological Change: Other O40 Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity: General O41 One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models O42 Monetary Growth Models O43 Institutions and Growth O44 Environment and Growth O47 Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity; Cross-Country Output Convergence O49 Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity: Other O50 Economywide Country Studies: General O51 Economywide Country Studies: U.S.; Canada O52 Economywide Country Studies: Europe O53 Economywide Country Studies: Asia including Middle East O54 Economywide Country Studies: Latin America; Caribbean O55 Economywide Country Studies: Africa O56 Economywide Country Studies: Oceania O57 Comparative Studies of Countries P00 Economic Systems: General P10 Capitalist Systems: General P11 Capitalist Systems: Planning, Coordination, and Reform P12 Capitalist Enterprises P13 Cooperative Enterprises P14 Capitalist Systems: Property Rights P16 Capitalist Systems: Political Economy P17 Capitalist Systems: Performance and Prospects P18 Energy; Environment P19 Capitalist Systems: Other P20 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: General P21 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Planning, Coordination, and Reform P22 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Prices P23 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Factor and Product Markets; Industry Studies; Population P24 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: National Income, Product, and Expenditure; Money; Inflation P25 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics P26 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Political Economy; Property Rights P27 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Performance and Prospects P28 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Natural Resources; Energy; Environment P29 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Other P30 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: General P31 Socialist Enterprises and Their Transitions P32 Collectives; Communes; Agriculture P33 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: International Trade, Finance, Investment, Relations, and Aid P34 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: Financial Economics P35 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: Public Economics P36 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: Consumer Economics; Health; Education and Training: Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty P37 Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies: Legal Institutions; Illegal Behavior P39 Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions: Other P40 Other Economic Systems: General P41 Other Economic Systems: Planning, Coordination, and Reform P42 Other Economic Systems: Productive Enterprises; Factor and Product Markets; Prices; Population P43 Other Economic Systems: Public Economics; Financial Economics P44 Other Economic Systems: National Income, Product, and Expenditure; Money; Inflation P45 Other Economic Systems: International Trade, Finance, Investment and Aid P46 Other Economic Systems: Consumer Economics; Health; Education and Training; Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty P47 Other Economic Systems: Performance and Prospects P48 Other Economic Systems: Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies P49 Other Economic Systems: Other P50 Comparative Economic Systems: General P51 Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems P52 Comparative Studies of Particular Economies P59 Comparative Economic Systems: Other Q00 Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics: General Q01 Sustainable Development Q02 Commodity Markets Q10 Agriculture: General Q11 Agriculture: Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis; Prices Q12 Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets Q13 Agricultural Markets and Marketing; Cooperatives; Agribusiness Q14 Agricultural Finance Q15 Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation; Agriculture and Environment Q16 Agricultural R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension Services Q17 Agriculture in International Trade Q18 Agricultural Policy; Food Policy Q19 Agriculture: Other Q20 Renewable Resources and Conservation: General Q21 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Demand and Supply; Prices Q22 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Fishery; Aquaculture Q23 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Forestry Q24 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Land Q25 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Water Q26 Recreational Aspects of Natural Resources Q27 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Issues in International Trade Q28 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Government Policy Q29 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Other Q30 Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: General Q31 Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: Demand and Supply; Prices Q32 Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development Q33 Resource Booms Q34 Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts Q35 Hydrocarbon Resources Q37 Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: Issues in International Trade Q38 Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: Government Policy Q39 Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation: Other Q40 Energy: General Q41 Energy: Demand and Supply; Prices Q42 Alternative Energy Sources Q43 Energy and the Macroeconomy Q47 Energy Forecasting Q48 Energy: Government Policy Q49 Energy: Other Q50 Environmental Economics: General Q51 Valuation of Environmental Effects Q52 Pollution Control Adoption and Costs; Distributional Effects; Employment Effects Q53 Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Noise; Hazardous Waste; Solid Waste; Recycling Q54 Climate; Natural Disasters and Their Management; Global Warming Q55 Environmental Economics: Technological Innovation Q56 Environment and Development; Environment and Trade; Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental Equity; Population Growth Q57 Ecological Economics: Ecosystem Services; Biodiversity Conservation; Bioeconomics; Industrial Ecology Q58 Environmental Economics: Government Policy Q59 Environmental Economics: Other R00 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: General R10 General Regional Economics (includes Regional Data) R11 Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes R12 Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity R13 General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies R14 Land Use Patterns R15 General Regional Economics: Econometric and Input-Output Models; Other Models R19 General Regional Economics: Other R20 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Household Analysis: General R21 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Housing Demand R22 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Other Demand R23 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population; Neighborhood Characteristics R28 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Government Policy R29 Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics: Household Analysis: Other R30 Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location: General R31 Housing Supply and Markets R32 Other Spatial Production and Pricing Analysis R33 Nonagricultural and Nonresidential Real Estate Markets R38 Production Analysis and Firm Location: Government Policy R39 Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location: Other R40 Transportation Economics: General R41 Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time; Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise R42 Transportation Economics: Government and Private Investment Analysis; Road Maintenance, Transportation Planning R48 Transportation Economics: Government Pricing and Policy R49 Transportation Economics: Other R50 Regional Government Analysis: General R51 Finance in Urban and Rural Economies R52 Regional Government Analysis: Land Use and Other Regulations R53 Public Facility Location Analysis; Public Investment and Capital Stock R58 Regional Development Planning and Policy R59 Regional Government Analysis: Other Y10 Data: Tables and Charts Y20 Introductory Material Y30 Book Reviews (unclassified) Y40 Dissertations (unclassified) Y50 Further Reading (unclassified) Y60 Excerpt Y70 No Author General Discussions Y80 Related Disciplines Y90 Miscellaneous Categories: Other Y91 Pictures and Maps Y92 Novels, Self-Help Books, etc. Z00 Other Special Topics: General Z10 Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology: General Z11 Cultural Economics: Economics of the Arts and Literature Z12 Cultural Economics: Religion Z13 Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Language; Social and Economic Stratification Z18 Cultural Economics: Public Policy Z19 Cultural Economics: Other Z20 Sports Economics: General Z21 Sports Economics: Industry Studies Z22 Sports Economics: Labor Issues Z23 Sports Economics: Finance Z28 Sports Economics: Policy Z29 Sports Economics: Other Z30 Tourism Economics: General Z31 Tourism: Industry Studies Z32 Tourism and Development Z33 Tourism: Marketing and Finance Z38 Tourism: Policy Z39 Tourism: Other